Memory is One Essay Example

Memory is One Paper Anything where memory is required to do well will thwart a reflex agent. ) There exists a task environment in which every agent is rational. True. Consider a task environment in which all actions (including no action) give the same, equal reward (d) The input to an agent program is the same as the input to the agent donation. False, The input to a agent function is the percept history, The input to a agent program is only the current percept; is up to the agent program to record any relevant history needed to make actions, (e) Every agent function is implantable by some program/machine combination, False. Consider an agent whose only action is to return an integer, ND who perceives a bit each turn. It gains a point of performance if the integer returned matches the value of the entire biting perceived so far. Eventually, any agent program will fail because it will run out of memory. Suppose an agent selects its action uniformly at random from the set Of possible actions. There exists a deterministic task environment in which this agent is rational. True. Again consider the all actions always give equal reward case (g) It is possible for a given agent to be perfectly rational in two distinct task environments. True. Consider two environments based on betting on the outcomes of a roll of two dice. We will write a custom essay sample on Memory is One specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Memory is One specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Memory is One specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In one environment, the dice are fair, in the other, the dice are biased to always give 3 and 4. The agent can bet on what the sum of the dice will be, with equal reward on all possible outcomes for guessing correctly. The agent that always bets on 7 will be rational in both cases. (h) Every agent is rational in an unobservable environment. False. Built-in knowledge can give a rational agent in an unobservable environment. A vacuum- agent that cleans, moves, cleans moves would be rational, but one that never moves would not be. (i) A perfectly playing poker-playing agent never loses. False, Pit two perfectly playing agents against each other. Someone (the one with poorer luck) must lose. 2. (Exercise 2. 4) For each of the following activities, give a PEAS description of the task environment and characterize it in terms of the properties listed in Section 2_3. 2 (Properties of Task Environments in RUN 2nd De) ; Playing soccer. P- Win/Lose E- Soccer field A- Legs,Head,lisper body S- Eyes,Ears. Partially observable, multivalent, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, unknown 1 HOW 1 Solutions 0171 ; Exploring the subsurface oceans of Titan. P- Surface area mapped, extraterrestrial life found E. Obfuscate oceans of Titan A. Steering accelerator, break, probe arm, S- camera, sonar, probe sensors. Partially observable, single agent, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, unknown ; Shopping for used AAA books on the Internet-P- Cost of book. Quality/relevance/ correct edition E- Internets used book shops A- key entry, cursor website interfaces, browser. Partially observable, multivalent, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, unknown ; Playing a tennis match. P- Win/Lose E- Tennis court A- Tennis racquet, Legs S- Eyes, Ears. Partially observable, multivalent, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, unknown practicing tennis against a wall. P- Improved performance in future tennis matches E- Near a wall A- Tennis racquet, Legs S- Eyes, Ears. Observable, single ; Performing a high jump. P- Clearing the jump or not E- Track A- Legs, Body S- Eyes observable, single agent, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, unknown ; Knitting a sweater. P- Quality Of resulting sweater E- Rocking chair A- Hands,Needles S- Eyes. Observable, single agent, stochastic, sequential, dynamic, continuous, unknown ; Bidding on an item at an auction. P- Item acquired, Final price paid for item E- Auction House (or online) A- Bidding S- Eyes, Ears. Partially observable, multivalent, stochastic (tie-breaking for two simultaneous bids), episodic, dynamic, continuous, known 3. (Exercise 2. 5) Define in your own words the following terms: agent, agent function, agent program, rationality, autonomy, reflex agent, model-based agent, goal. Based agent, utility-based agent, learning agent. Agent: An algorithmic entity capable of displaying intelligent-like behavior. Agent function: a mapping from input-sequences to actions defining the behavior of an agent. Agent program: physical program implementing or approximating an agent function, Rationality: he behavior of maximizing ones own reward or performance. Reflex agent: agent only capable of considering its current perception of the world. Model- based agent: agent that attempt to internalize aspects tooth world through an approximating model, Goal-based agent: agent whose performance measure does not directly depend on local actions but on some (potentially) distant goal. Utility-based agent: agent whose performance measure is given by a utility function which determines which states are preferable and which are not on a continuous or many-valued scale. Learning agent: An agent whose performance an improve with experience. 4. (Exercise 2. 6) This exercise explores the differences between agent functions and agent programs. (a) Can there be more than one agent program that implements a given agent function? Give an example, or show why one is not possible. Yes. Assume we are given an agent function whose actions only depend on the previous p percepts. One program can remember the previous p percepts to implement the agent function, while another could remember greater than p percepts and still implement the same agent function. (b) Are there agent functions that cannot be implemented by any agent program? Yes, See 1 (e) (c) Given a fixed machine architecture, does each agent program implement exactly one agent function? Yes. Given a percept sequence, an agent program will select an action. To implement multiple agent functions this would require the agent program to select different actions (or different distributions of actions) given the same percept sequence. D) Given an architecture with n bits of storage, how many different possible agent programs are there? If a is the total number of actions, then the number of possible n programs are AAA an internal states and a choices for each state (e) Suppose e keep the agent program fixed but speed up the machine by a factor Of two. Does that change the agent function? No, not directly. However this may allow the program to compress its memory further and to retain a better model Of the world. 5. (Exercise 3. 2) Your goal is to navigate a robot out Of a maze. The robot Starts in the center of the maze facing north. You can turn the robot to face north, east, south, or west. You can direct the robot to move forward a certain distance, although it will stop before hitting a wall. (a) Formulate the problem. How large is the state space? Initial State: (0. ) Facing( (O, 1) Successor Function( At(x), Facing(y) (Or-I) 1,0) 1} k blocks), (At(x 4 y min(k, Adam (x, where Adam (x, y) is the maximum distance the robot can move in direction y from point x without hitting a wall. Goal State: At(x), x e G, where G is the set of locations outside the maze. If the maze is comprised of S blocks, then the total number of states is AS. (b) In navigating a maze, the only place we need to turn is at the intersection of two or more corridors. Reformulate this problem using this observations How large is the state space now? The successor function remains the same for intersections, ND for locations x Vichy are straight corridors: Successor Function( At(x), Facing(y) ): k blocks), {At(x * y min(k, Adam (k, Thus if the maze has I intersection blocks then the size of the state space is 41 + 2(S l). HI ; solutions (c) From each point in the maze, we can move in any of the four directions until we reach a turning point, and this is the only action we need to do. Reformulate the problem using these actions. Do we need to keep track of the robots orientation now? For intersections x, Certifications( At(x) J: x 4 (O, l)Damn (x, (O, At(x+ (1, 0)Damn (x, (1, x 4 (O, -?l)Damn (x, (O, At(x + (-1, C)Damn (x, (-1, here Damn (x, y) is the minimum distance from to an intersection in they direction. We no longer need to keep track of the robots orientation since the new actions now contain the turning motions within them. The total number of states is now l. (d) In our initial description Of the problem we already abstracted from the real world, restricting actions and removing details. List three such simplifications we made. (I) The robot can move only in one Of four directions. (2) The robot can sense walls perfectly. (3) After attempting to move a certain distance, the robot knows With certainty how far it has moved. 6. (Exercise 3. ) Consider the n-queens problem using the efficient incremental oversimplification on page 72 (page 67 RUN 2nd De. Explain why the state space has at least 3 n! States and estimate the largest n for which exhaustive exploration is feasible. (Hint: Derive a lower bound on the branching factor by considering the maximum number of squares that a queen can attack in any column. ) We want a lower bound on the size of the state space of this formulation of the n-queens problem. In this formulation, each column contains a queen, and queens are filled in neighboring columns in locations that are not attacked by previous queens.

Spatial Differences Between Males and Females

Spatial Differences Between Males and Females Free Online Research Papers Although many studies have been conducted on interpersonal distance throughout history, it remains uncertain how it should be defined. The Dictionary of Psychology defines interpersonal distance as the distance that people select to separate their ‘bubble’ of personal space from one or more other individuals (Corsini, 1999). This definition appears vague and does not address what usually happens through the invasion of one’s personal space. According to Hayduk (1978), personal space would be â€Å"the area individual humans actively maintain around themselves into which others cannot intrude without arousing discomfort† (p. 118). Altman (1975) has noticed that each definition has four properties. First, it has an invisible boundary separating ourselves from others. Second, it would be literally connected to the self. Third, the invisible boundary adjusts to different situations. Fourth, if someone infringes upon our personal space, it could result in anxiety or stress (Altman, 1975). As Corsini (1999) mentioned, it has often been described as an invisible ‘bubble’ encircling a person (Hayduk, 1983). Despite this common description, Hayduk (1983) believed the bubble analogy was insufficient and misleading. He explained that the bubble analogy does not portray the degree of resistance accompanying intrusion effectively. The misleading aspect was derived from the fact that two bubbles repel one another when pushed together, but when two people got close to each other, their bodies would move, not their personal spaces. Furthermore, bubbles consist of a circular shape and remain the same size until they are ruptured. Personal space remains flexible and it can change depending on the surroundings and specific situations. That being said, the research on personal space has been vast (Hayduk, 1983). Personal space has been studied in conjunction with a multitude of variables such as age (Yagoda, 1982; Remland, 1995), race (Brown, 1981; Carifio, 1987), cultural differences (Aono, 1980; Beaulieu, 2004; Six, 1983), mental disorders (Nechamkin, 2003; Beekman, 1986), the menstrual cycle (O’Neal, Schultz, Christenson, 1987) and sex (Buchanan, Goldman, Juhnke, 1977; Schwarzwald, Kavish, Shoham, Waysman, 1977). Most of the research has been limited in analyzing merely sex and interpersonal distance. Sex differences have often been considered secondary since researchers tend to include other variables that make it difficult to determine cause and effect. This has been due to the fact that most researchers have not been specifically interested in sex differences, but included them in their research anyway (Altman, 1975). Although sex has been oversimplified and misinterpreted as unimportant when studying interpersonal distance, it continues to be a relevant factor. Hayduk (1983) explains that part of the problem has been that we expect sex to have simple effects because there would only be two values to interpret. This has been a misconception because sex should not be seen as a simple dichotomy (Hayduk, 1983). Altman (1975) and Hayduk (1983) both agreed that sex differences need to be understood by observing whether a male or female was approaching a male or female. As a result, there should be four possible values instead of two values. Another important factor would be to determine the relative positions of each individual (Fisher Byrne, 1975; Hayduk, 1983). Males appear to be more comfortable with adjacent spatial positions and females appear to be more comfortable with frontal spatial positions (Fisher Byrne, 1975). This difference may account for more or less personal space between males and females. Numerous studies concluded that females have smaller zones of personal space compared to males (Altman, 1975; Edney, Walker, Jordan, 1976; Fisher, 1975). On the other hand, several studies have also found no significant results at all (Greenberg, Aronow, Rauchway, 1977; Heckel Hiers, 1977; Schneider Hansvick, 1977; Rustemli, 1988). The two conclusions contradict one another. The question remains as to whether significant results concerning sex differences and personal space actually exist. Lerner, Venning, and Knapp (1975) conducted a study on the age and sex effects on personal space. In a sample of children, between kindergarten and sixth grade, it was found that significant sex effects were apparent. The sex effects that were found included the need for females to require more space from males and less space from females. Additionally, it was found that males require more space from females and less from males (Lerner, Venning, Knapp, 1975). One reason for this effect might be the age of the participants. Nevertheless, it suggests that each sex has personal space requirements. The boundary of personal space expands and contracts in diverse situations. In a study conducted by Schwarzwald, Kavish, Shoham, and Waysman (1977), it was found that under fear arousal conditions, personal space contracts. This finding coincides with Altman’s (1975) third property of personal space, which states that the invisible boundary adjusts to different situations. The experiment was performed in a laboratory setting. Participants were told that a galvanic skin response apparatus was going to check for changes. In the fear arousal condition, participants were told that the changes would be measured via electric shocks which may cause some pain or discomfort. Participants in the condition without fear arousal were also told that the changes would be measured via shocks, but were not told they would cause pain or discomfort. The participants in both conditions were told there were two stages in the process, and that they could wait in a waiting room for the next stage. U pon entering the waiting room, a confederate would appear to be waiting for their second stage in the experiment. The participant would have to pick up an overturned chair and place it anywhere to sit down. The distance recorded was between the confederate and the participant. The results showed that the influence of fear arousal on either sex influenced them to move toward someone of the same sex. Also, in a non fear induced condition, males had a tendency to be closer to a female (Schwarzwald, et al., 1977). Rustemli (1988) conducted an experiment on the effects of personal space invasion on impressions, decisions, and comfort. It should also be noted that the technique used in this study was unusual. The participants were told that the purpose of the investigation was to study the interview technique as a selection procedure. In the non-invasion condition, the interviewee (confederate) placed their chair between 100 cm and 120 cm from the interviewer (participant). Conversely, in the invasion condition, the interviewee placed their chair at approximately 10 cm between their feet and the interviewer’s feet. During the interview, a set of 12 questions would be asked by the interviewer and the interviewee would respond with rehearsed answers. After the interview was over, the participant (interviewer) would fill out an evaluation sheet. The sheet measured impressions with 20 bipolar adjectives, then it measured decisions through a 7 point scale where 1 is yes I would hire them and 7 is no I would not hire them. The sheet also measured feelings about the interview situation as a whole by asking how comfortable they were and to what degree were they comfortable. There was no variation to be found on distance manipulation upon impressions and decisions. Both male and female subjects had equally positive reactions. Conversely, male invaders produced more discomfort than female invaders. The study was conducted in Turkey, so one reason for this result may be cultural. Men may seem more threatening because they have more power and higher status (Rustemli, 1988). Buchanan and colleagues (1977) conducted a study on the violation of personal space and whether eye contact or sex had an effect upon it. Three different experiments were conducted. In the first experiment, either 2 male or 2 female confederates occupied an elevator. As a participant would step onto the elevator, one confederate would gaze at them while the other stared at the control panel. Since it was possible for the non-gazing confederate to make eye contact peripherally, experiment two was performed. This experiment was the same as the first with the exception that one confederate had there back to the control panel while reading a newspaper. In experiment 3, there was one male and one female occupying the elevator, and both were making eye contact with whoever got on it. Males were found to have no preference towards either sex regardless of any eye contact. On the other hand, females chose to invade the space of another female who was making eye contact whether the other pers on was a female or a male. One explanation for this may be that females tend to engage in more mutual glances than men (Buchanan, Goldman, Juhnke, 1977). In a study conducted by Uzzell and Horne (2006), it was found that there were some sex differences in interpersonal distance. However, the most significant differences were found in gender roles. They proposed that sex does not have a distinctive role to play in explaining interpersonal distance. Nevertheless, they recognized that gender roles have been highly correlated with sex; therefore, sex can not be ruled out completely (Uzzell Horne, 2006). Sex refers to the biological parts of a person, while gender refers to a social and cultural construction specifying how men and women should behave. There has been an escalating dissociation between sex and gender among society in recent years. As a result, it has made it more acceptable for women to assert at least some masculine traits and characteristics and for men to assert at least some feminine traits and characteristics. Whereas sex has become more polarized, gender exists along a continuum. Hence, it would be inappropriate to assume sex and gender to be the same (Uzzell Horne, 2006). These findings may have some inevitable methodological limitations in the study of interpersonal distance. The three different methodologies that have been used to examine discrepancies in personal distances include projective, laboratory, and observation. Projective procedures entail asking participants to hypothetically imagine a circumstance, and then indicate how they think they or another person would react spatially in that situation (Uzzell Horne, 2006). After reviewing the studies using this technique, Hayduk (1983) concluded that it had no credibility. It has a number of obvious flaws such as needing complex cognitive skills like reconstruction, imagination, empathy, and memory demands. Laboratory measures have also been utilized frequently. The ‘stopdistance’ method has been the most common laboratory method. The experimenter would ask one participant to enter a room and approach another participant until the point when they start feeling uncomfortable with the other person’s proximity. On the other hand, the ‘approach distance’ method would be used in a similar way. The participants would be asked to move towards another person and specify when they stop feeling comfortable. Two of the advantages to laboratory studies would be that they could be easily administered, and by arranging the setting to look like, for example, an office, the experiment could have some degree of ecological validity. The third methodology, observation, has the most ecological validity since it involves directly observing people interacting with each other in real situations and, if possible, by unobtrusive means. The observation method also conveys awareness to the most practical obscurity in the accurate measurement of interpersonal distances. The observation method includes two subtypes which attempt to be inconspicuous and field-based. The first subtype would be mostly a naturalistic, unobtrusive, and uncontrolled observation which would reflect people interacting in a real-world setting. The second subtype would be staged invasions or blocked access in natural settings. In both subtypes, either unsuspecting participants would be approached by a confederate or the paths of people would be blocked by confederates and the reactions examined. Two of the problems with each of these techniques have been ecological validity and the accuracy of measurement. Observation studies as well as laboratory studies have not been able to agree on accurate measurements of interpersonal distance. Since variations in interpersonal distances have been minimal, it would be important to be accurate. The purpose of the current study will be to look at observational research of interpersonal distance between males and females. Nearly all studies on interpersonal distance look more at social interaction than at the actual physical distance which makes this study somewhat novel. Nevertheless, we predict that the furthest distance will be between two males, next between a female approaching a male, then between a male approaching a female, and the closest distance will be between two females. Method Design A 4 X 4 between subjects research design would be used in this study. The two independent variables observed will be sex and accessories. Sex would have four levels recorded as female to male, male to female, male to male, or female to female. There would be four levels for accessories recorded as presence of a backpack, presence of a lunch tray, presence of both a lunch tray and a backpack, and the absence of a lunch tray and a backpack. The dependent variable would be the distance between the participant and the confederate. Participants One hundred undergraduate students at the University of Alabama will be observed in food lines at the Ferguson Center Food Court. Participants should vary with respect to sex and race. The sex of the students in this study should consist of roughly half males and half females. Since the study will be conducted at a University, most of the participants would probably be around the same age. Professors, staff, and non-University of Alabama undergraduates should not be included. Materials All data would be collected with pen and paper. A data sheet would be constructed with various categories to ease the collection process and allow more focus on the college students. The data sheet would consist of five categories listed in columns. The first category would be labeled ‘sex of participant’ which has two options: male or female. The second column would be labeled ‘sex of confederate’ which also has two options: male or female. The next column would be labeled ‘accessory’ which has four options: presence of a backpack, presence of a lunch tray, presence of both a lunch tray and a backpack, and the absence of a lunch tray and a backpack. The fourth column would be labeled ‘other’ and could be used to record either the race of each participant or other potential variables. The last column would be labeled ‘distance’ and would be used to record how far the participant moved when his or her personal space was invaded upon in line by the confederate. Procedure First of all, in order to help prevent observer bias, the observers would have no knowledge of the research hypotheses. They would also be trained on the method of measuring to aid the interobserver reliability. The observers and confederates would arrive at the Ferguson Center Food Court around noon since that would be the busiest time of day and as a result would lower reactivity. One individual will act as the observer and the other will act as the confederate. In order to promote fairness and to help provide a representative sample, one researcher should be female and the other male. The observer should stay within ten feet of the confederate and the presumed participant. This ought to be a safe distance and help the observer blend in with the crowd. Before the confederate invades the participant’s personal space, the observer should note the sex, race, and accessories of the participant. Then, with a head nod, the confederate could begin to invade the personal space of the person in line. The participant in line may move forward, away from the confederate, or remain in the same position to keep from interfering with someone else’s personal space. The observer would estimate the distance in feet and record it on the data sheet. After 50 participants had been entered on the data sheet, the researchers should switch places. Discussion The prediction for the present study was that the furthest distance will be between two males, next between a female approaching a male, then between a male approaching a female, and the closest distance would be between two females. These results were based upon previous research which supported the hypothesis that females have the shortest distance of personal space with another female (Buchanan, Goldman, Juhnke, 1977; Schwarzwald, et al., 1977; Lerner, Venning, Knapp, 1975). The prediction that two males would be the farthest apart was derived from societal expectations and homophobic tendencies. Society expects males to lack emotion and be strong. Conversely, society expects females to be emotional and passive. Males tend to perceive the closeness of another male as threatening to their manhood. Therefore, the furthest amount of interpersonal distance should be found between two males. A female approaching a male was predicted to have more distance than a male approaching a female due to societal expectations as well. A male has been perceived as more dominant, and would be expected to approach a female. On the other hand, a female who approaches a male may be seen as promiscuous. Thus, it seemed appropriate that a female approaching a male would contain more distance than a male approaching a female. One of the limitations of this study would be that it was performed in an uncontrolled setting. However, this could also be viewed as an advantage because it would be in a somewhat natural environment. Another limitation might be in the perception of the actual distance that the participant moved. In a naturalistic setting, it would be difficult to measure precisely how far a person moved without the result of reactivity. Although college students have been frequently used in experiments, it has been questioned whether they can represent the general population. Future research should continue to perfect a way of measuring interpersonal distance. A more reliable method would provide higher validity and reliability. Additionally, more research should be done to focus on the effects of sex on interpersonal distance. References Altman, I. (1975) The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, Crowding. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Monterey, CA. Aono, A. (1980). A developmental study of interpersonal distance and bodily orientation in Japan. Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(2), 97-105. Beaulieu, C. (2004). Intercultural study of personal space: A case study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(4), 794-805. Beekman, M. (1986). Interpersonal distance choice and response to distance violation in paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenic and nonpsychotic inpatients. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(8-B), 2795. Brown, C. (1981). Shared space invasion and race. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(1), 103-108. Buchanan, D., Goldman, M., Juhnke, R. (1977). Eye contact, sex, and the violation of personal space. Journal of Social Psychology, 103(1), 19-25. Carifio, M. (1987). Personal space as a function of violence, race, and control. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(7-B), 3100. Corsini, Raymond J. (1999). The Dictionary of Psychology. Psychology Press (UK) 501. Edney, J., Walker, C., Jordan, N. (1976). Is there reactance in personal space? Journal of Social Psychology, 100, 207–217. Fisher, J. Byrne, D. (1975). Too close for comfort: Sex differences in response to invasions of personal space. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 32(1), 15-21. Greenberg, E., Aronow, E., Rauchway, A. (1977). Inkblot content and interpersonal distance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 882-887. Hayduk, L. (1978). Personal space: An evaluative and orienting view. Psychological Bulletin. 85(1), 117-134. Hayduk, L. (1983). Personal space: Where we now stand. Psychological Bulletin. 94(2), 293-335. Heckel, R., Hiers, J. (1977). Social distance and locus of control. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(2), 469-471. Lerner, R., Venning, J., Knapp, J. (1975). Age and sex effects on personal space schemata toward body build in late childhood. Developmental Psychology, 11(6), 855-856. Nechamkin, Y., Salganik, I., Modai, I., Ponizovsky, A. (2003).Interpersonal distance in schizophrenic patients: Relationship to negative syndrome. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 49(3), 165. ONeal, E., Schultz, J., Christenson, T. (1987). The menstrual cycle and personal space. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 11(1), 26-32. Remland, M., Jones, T., Brinkman, H. (1995). Interpersonal distance, body orientation, and touch: Effects of culture, gender, and age. Journal of Social Psychology, 135 (3), 281-297. Rustemli, A. (1988). The effects of personal space invasion on impressions and decisions. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 122(2), 113-118. Schneider, F., Hansvick, C. (1977). Gaze and distance as a function of changes in interpersonal gaze. Social Behavior Personality: An International Journal, 5(1), 49. Schwarzwald, J., Kavish, N., Shoham, M. (1977) Fear and sex-similarity as determinants of personal space. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 96(1), 55-61. Six, B. Martin, P., Pecher, M. (1983). A cultural comparison of perceived crowding and discomfort: The United States and West Germany. Journal of Psychology, 114(1), 63. Uzzell, D. Horne, N. (2006). The influence of biological sex, sexuality and gender role on interpersonal distance. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45(3), 579- 597. Yagoda, L. (1982). Interpersonal distance and dependency in children as related to adults and peers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(1-B), 238. Research Papers on Spatial Differences Between Males and FemalesThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseResearch Process Part OneEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThree Concepts of PsychodynamicInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product

Bajar Conjugation in Spanish, Translation, and Examples

Bajar Conjugation in Spanish, Translation, and Examples The Spanish verb bajar  means to take down or lower, but it can be used in several different ways.  Bajar  is a regular  -ar  verb like  parar  or  llamar.  If you know the  conjugation rules for regular -ar  verbs, then you can easily conjugate bajar.  In this article you can find tables with the present, preterit, imperfect, future, and conditional indicative tenses for bajar, as well as the present and past subjunctive, imperative, and other verb forms. Using the Verb Bajar The verb  bajar  has many different uses. It can be both a transitive and intransitive verb. When it is used as a transitive verb it can mean to lower or drop something, such as  Debes bajar el volumen de la mà ºsica  (You must lower the volume of the music), or Bajà ©Ã‚  el precio del carro  (I lowered the price of the car). It can also mean to take or bring something down, as in  Voy a bajar el florero del estante  (Im going to bring down the vase from the shelf), and it can even mean to download something from the internet, as in  Bajà © el archivo a mi computadora  (I downloaded the file to my computer).   The verb  bajar can also be  used as an intransitive verb to talk about something lowering or dropping, such as  El precio de la gasolina bajà ³Ã‚  (The price of gas dropped) or Esta noche bajar la temperatura  (Tonight the temperature will drop). It can also be used to talk about when a person comes down or descends, as in  Ella bajà ³ al primer piso  (She came down to the first floor). Finally, you can use  bajar  to talk about getting off a vehicle, as in El nià ±o bajà ³ del autobà ºs  (The boy got off the bus). Bajar Present Indicative Yo bajo I lower Yo bajo el volumen de la msica. T bajas You lower T bajas los libros del estante. Usted/l/ella baja You/he/she lowers Ella baja las persianas en la noche. Nosotros bajamos We lower Nosotros bajamos el precio de la ropa. Vosotros bajis You lower Vosotros bajis la velocidad del carro. Ustedes/ellos/ellas bajan You/they lower Ellos bajan la foto de la pared. Bajar Preterite  Indicative There are two forms of the past tense  in Spanish:  the preterite and the imperfect. The preterite is used to talk about completed actions in the past.   Yo baj I lowered Yo baj el volumen de la msica. T bajaste You lowered T bajaste los libros del estante. Usted/l/ella baj You/he/she lowered Ella baj las persianas en la noche. Nosotros bajamos We lowered Nosotros bajamos el precio de la ropa. Vosotros bajasteis You lowered Vosotros bajasteis la velocidad del carro. Ustedes/ellos/ellas bajaron You/they lowered Ellos bajaron la foto de la pared. Bajar Imperfect  Indicative The imperfect tense is used to talk about ongoing or repeated actions in the past. With the verb bajar,  you can translate the imperfect as was lowering or used to lower.   Yo bajaba I used to lower Yo bajaba el volumen de la msica. T bajabas You used to lower T bajabas los libros del estante. Usted/l/ella bajaba You/he/she used to lower Ella bajaba las persianas en la noche. Nosotros bajbamos We used to lower Nosotros bajbamos el precio de la ropa. Vosotros bajabais You used to lower Vosotros bajabais la velocidad del carro. Ustedes/ellos/ellas bajaban You/they used to lower Ellos bajaban la foto de la pared. Bajar Future  Indicative Yo bajar I will lower Yo bajar el volumen de la msica. T bajars You will lower T bajars los libros del estante. Usted/l/ella bajar You/he/she will lower Ella bajar las persianas en la noche. Nosotros bajaremos We will lower Nosotros bajaremos el precio de la ropa. Vosotros bajaris You will lower Vosotros bajaris la velocidad del carro. Ustedes/ellos/ellas bajarn You/they will lower Ellos bajarn la foto de la pared. Bajar Periphrastic Future  Indicative The periphrastic future in Spanish is equivalent to the going to verb construction in English. Yo voy a bajar I am going to lower Yo voy a bajar el volumen de la msica. T vas a bajar You are going to lower T vas a bajar los libros del estante. Usted/l/ella va a bajar You/he/she is going to lower Ella va a bajar las persianas en la noche. Nosotros vamos a bajar We are going to lower Nosotros vamos a bajar el precio de la ropa. Vosotros vais a bajar You are going to lower Vosotros vais a bajar la velocidad del carro. Ustedes/ellos/ellas van a bajar You/they are going to lower Ellos van a bajar la foto de la pared. Bajar Conditional  Indicative When you want to talk about possibilities or about things that would happen,  you can use the conditional  tense. An example of a sentence using the conditional is Si vinieras a visitarme, bajarà ­a a abrirte la puerta  (If you came to visit me, I would come down to open the door for you). Yo bajara I would lower Yo bajara el volumen de la msica. T bajaras You would lower T bajaras los libros del estante. Usted/l/ella bajara You/he/she would lower Ella bajara las persianas en la noche. Nosotros bajaramos We would lower Nosotros bajaramos el precio de la ropa. Vosotros bajarais You would lower Vosotros bajarais la velocidad del carro. Ustedes/ellos/ellas bajaran You/they would lower Ellos bajaran la foto de la pared. Bajar Present Progressive/Gerund Form The present participle or gerund  of -ar  verbs is formed with the ending  -ando. You can use the present participle to form  progressive tenses, such as the present progressive. Present Progressive of Bajar   est bajando   She is lowering   Ella est bajando las persianas. Bajar Past Participle To form the past participle for  -ar  verbs, use the ending  -ado. The past participle  is used to form  compound tenses  like the present perfect.   Present Perfect of Bajar   ha bajado   She has lowered   Ella ha bajado las persianas.   Bajar Present Subjunctive Que yo baje That I lower Pedro pide que yo baje el volumen de la msica. Que t bajes That you lower Marisa quiere que t bajes los libros del estante. Que usted/l/ella baje That you/he/she lower Marco espera que ella baje las persianas en la noche. Que nosotros bajemos That we lower Carlos pide que nosotros bajemos el precio de la ropa. Que vosotros bajis That you lower Sara quiere que vosotros bajis la velocidad del carro. Que ustedes/ellos/ellas bajen That you/they lower Leo pide que ellos bajen la foto de la pared. Bajar Imperfect  Subjunctive The tables below show two options for conjugating the imperfect subjunctive. Both options are equally valid. Option 1 Que yo bajara That I lowered Pedro pidi que yo bajara el volumen de la msica. Que t bajaras That you lowered Marisa quera que t bajaras los libros del estante. Que usted/l/ella bajara That you/he/she lowered Marco esperaba que ella bajara las persianas en la noche. Que nosotros bajramos That we lowered Carlos pidi que nosotros bajramos el precio de la ropa. Que vosotros bajarais That you lowered Sara quera que vosotros bajarais la velocidad del carro. Que ustedes/ellos/ellas bajaran That you/they lowered Leo pidi que ellos bajaran la foto de la pared. Option 2 Que yo bajase That I lowered Pedro pidi que yo bajase el volumen de la msica. Que t bajases That you lowered Marisa quera que t bajases los libros del estante. Que usted/l/ella bajase That you/he/she lowered Marco esperaba que ella bajase las persianas en la noche. Que nosotros bajsemos That we lowered Carlos pidi que nosotros bajsemos el precio de la ropa. Que vosotros bajaseis That you lowered Sara quera que vosotros bajaseis la velocidad del carro. Que ustedes/ellos/ellas bajasen That you/they lowered Leo pidi que ellos bajasen la foto de la pared. Bajar Imperative   If you want to give a command or direct order, use the imperative mood. The tables below show the affirmative and negative commands, which are different in the tà ºÃ‚  and  vosotros  forms. Positive Commands T baja Lower! Baja los libros del estante! Usted baje Lower! Baje las persianas en la noche! Nosotros bajemos Lets lower! Bajemos el precio de la ropa! Vosotros bajad Lower! Bajad la velocidad del carro! Ustedes bajen Lower! Bajen la foto de la pared! Negative Commands T no bajes Dont lower! No bajes los libros del estante! Usted no baje Dont lower! No baje las persianas en la noche! Nosotros no bajemos Lets not lower! No bajemos el precio de la ropa! Vosotros no bajis Dont lower! No bajis la velocidad del carro! Ustedes no bajen Dont lower! No bajen la foto de la pared!

Human Resource Assignment (Hospitality Industry) Essay

Human Resource Assignment (Hospitality Industry) - Essay Example In other words, the service sector can be termed as hospitality sector (Simmering, 2006). One of the most important aspects to remember is that the service or hospitality industry deal with selling customer satisfaction and it is not an easy task. Training is the responsibility of the Human Resource Management. Additionally, they also take care of employee recruitment and make sure that employees' abilities are precisely and favourably nurtured to best suite the companies' requirement. However, today several such industries lack proper training resulting in failures. This paper analysis the reasons for the success and failures of training programs in the hospitality industry. Customer satisfaction is the main job of any hospitality industry. Hospitals are a part of this industry and make sure that the patients are given at most care and support for recovery. Aviation industry is involved in flying passengers with all comforts to their destinations. Similarly, hotel's don't sell rooms or a place to sleep rather they sell customer fulfilment and comfort. Food industry or a restaurant is not just the business of selling food, but they sell service, luxury and comfort. It doesn't matter what service or hospitality industry, customer satisfaction is of great importance (Bacal & Associates, N.D.). There are several reasons as to why the training aspects are not taken up with all seriousness. Employees in the hospitality arena oppose or dislike training because they believe that they are already trained. Most of them believe they already have the requisite skills to do their job reasonably well (BNET, 1998). In recent decades the attitudes and awareness to training has changed to a great extent. Historically, training applied more to manual and enhanced the trade skills through apprenticeships. With the help of current technology the training skills to a great extent has developed and improved to cover all aspects of modern business and industry. There are three broad approaches according to Armstrong (1999 Cited in cookeryonline.com) to training. The first one is about the adoption of lassie-faire approach believing that employees will find out what to do for themselves or through others. For instance if skill shortages were to be encountered, they would set right the circumstances by poaching staff from other organisations that invest in training. In a second type of organizations, they may invest in training in good times, i.e. when they have enough funds, but in bad times training budgets will be the first to be cut. Thirdly organisations that take on a positive training philosophy do so because they recognize the fact that they live in a world where competitive advantage is achieved by having higher quality people. This goal cannot be achieved if proper investment in developing the skills and competencies of their employees is not taken up. Training is the practical move toward rather than reactive approach designating t raining as a permanent and on-going process within the organisation. There are several factors that need to be considered for any company to design an effective training programme. For instance, it is said that training

Women oppression in the united States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Women oppression in the united States - Essay Example The reality was dawning on American women that marriage and childbearing were not a guarantee for happiness. In the past, women were expected to take care of their families and perform domestic cores rather than looking for work. The society considered working women less feminine (Friedan 15).young women who left college prioritized getting married and siring children than anything else. However, housewives were increasingly becoming discontented with the kind of life they were leading, which was akin to prison life. They were becoming bored and desperate (Friedan 9). Many American women were privately seeking the services of psychiatrists as they suffered from fatigue because of numerous chores. Ancient American women mainly focused on domestic duties rather than pursue formal jobs, which were a preserve for men. The women were getting bored and desperate following their home routines. The women were obliging to the expert advice that their role was to find husbands and sire children then take care of their families. However, things have changed. The issue of gender equality has become more important than ever before. Women should be allowed to work and given equal job opportunities as their male counterparts. Women have high potential that could be exploited beyond the confines of their matrimonial

Information Technology Essay Example for Free

Information Technology Essay Write a 200- to 300-word short-answer response to the following: How is information used in the modern enterprise? How does this use affect IT systems? Information technology has become spreading widely throughout our society. We live in a modern world with Internet access from our home, fast food chains, offices, schools and on our mobile devices, such as iPhones, iPods, Blackberries and Android Phones. Nowadays, the use of internet became essential to communicate distantly and the use of social medias for interactions as well as businesses through online marketing or other called as the e-commerce. The rapid advancement of this system has elevated the importance of the IT function. Information technology in the modern enterprise has developed gradually from a back-office component to a most important operational constituent that could improve businesses performances and increases shareholders value. Enterprises such as marketing, sales and finance are now cooperated by information technology. The core success of an organization is information technology because it serves daily operational support and enables enterprise wide change. Since information technology is essential in a modern enterprise it is sometimes serve as a threat in today’s organization. One of the examples is the personal information which can be sending through the use of systems and it can be a threat if this information consolidated from banks and accounts pertaining to financial aspects. In these cases, applying triad could be helpful that is Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability. The protection of the information from disclosure to unauthorized users is confidentiality while integrity refers to protecting information from being modified by unauthorized users. Ensuring that authorized users are able to access the information when needed is availability.

Does Competition Benefit in Business? Essay -- Business, Competition

Does Competition Benefit in Business? Do businesses want to grow and advance, or remain at a standstill with production? Most say they want to grow and advance. This topic is important in the business standpoint. Shall business managers promote competition or not? â€Å"Smart business professionals use competition to their advantage† (Pearson 1). Businesses who use competition notice the positive effects later down the road. Seeking to thrive and grow, businesses need to promote competition and compete against the other firms in their business. â€Å"There’s nothing like a little competition to suddenly boost productivity† (qtd. in Penn 1). Although some critics argue that competition may develop a negative atmosphere in the workplace, businesses should promote competition in order to function in a changing society, establish efficient performance, and enhance their customer’s satisfaction. Businesses should promote competition in order to function in a changing society. America seems to grow bigger structurally and technologically everyday. Businesses need to keep up with these advancements. Designing and selling top quality products for America, competition challenges businesses to create a better future. When competition arises between two industries, the sight of competing drives consumer business to the industry that successfully lowers the prices on their products. Successful industries remain up-to-date with society becoming top-notch in the field they compete in. Competition teaches businesses what will work in their market and what will not work. The consumer demand for products always appear no matter what. How industries produce that product determines how successful the business operation becomes. â€Å"Compet... ...ometimes goes another route and leads to productivity decrease. If business professionals enforce competition in their business, the aspect of getting the job done efficiently reappears almost instantly. In this day and age, the human society with the will to win is absent. People are lazy and avoid the competition. If employers employ the right people for the job with the right mindset who are willing to work diligently and efficiently through all struggles involving business, then they want competition in and around their firm. Competition, tough and non-regrettable, is not for the lazy worker, so if employees want to see productivity in their business then they find the right people who know how to work hard. So if a business wants to see itself grow and establish, then the right answer to see these gains involves a little bit of external competition.

Human Growth Hormone Deficiency

HGH You may have never heard of hypopituitarism until your child was diagnosed with it. Hypopituitarism occurs when the anterior (front) lobe of the pituitary gland loses its ability to make hormones. The resulting symptoms depend on which hormones are no longer being produced by the gland. The  pituitary gland  controls many hormones including the  growth hormone. A case with hypopituitarism could have symptoms that involve blood pressure, blood sugar, kidney function, sexual drive and multiple other things not just stunted growth, versus a growth hormone deficiency that would only affect growth.Symptoms of Growth Hormone deficiency in children include the following: Short stature, low growth velocity (speed) for age and pubertal stage, increased amount of fat around the waist, The child may look younger than other children his or her age, delayed tooth development Symptoms of Growth Hormone deficiency in adults include the following: low energy, decreased strength and exercis e tolerance, decreased muscle mass, weight gain, especially around the waist, Feelings of anxiety, depression, or sadness causing a change in social behavior, thin and dry skin.Successful treatment of the underlying condition causing hypopituitarism may lead to a complete or partial recovery of your body's normal production of pituitary hormones. The usual treatment for pituitary tumors is surgery to remove the growth. In some instances, doctors also recommend radiation treatment.If hormone deficiencies continue after treatment, then you'll need prescriptions of one or more hormone replacement medications. These drugs are considered as â€Å"replacement† rather than treatment, because the dosages are set to match the amounts that your body would normally manufacture if it didn't have a pituitary problem. Treatment is usually lifelong. There is no cure for hypopituitarism.

Apple vs Samsung Patent Battle a Threat to Innovation

APPLE VS SAMSUNG PATENT BATTLE A THREAT TO INNOVATION Rather than innovate and develop its own technology and a unique Samsung style for its Smartphone product and computer tablets, Samsung choose to copy Apple's technology user interface and innovation style in these infringing products. Apple had accused Samsung of copying its intellectual property, including its very broad design patents for rectangular â€Å"electronic devices. And Apple wants to use those patents to stop its competitor from selling items like the new (rectangular) Galaxy tablet and (rectangular) Android-based Smartphone's.On Aug. 24, a San Jose jury awarded Apple Inc. a whopping $1. 05 billion in damages. Apple-Samsung jury: Verdict †¢The nine-person jury in the trial between the two tech-giants faces a wildly complex form to determine the winner. †¢SAN JOSE, Calif. — There is little doubt that the trial between Apple and Samsung taking place here is complex, and perhaps nowhere is that clearer than in the form that jurors will have to fill out on their way to reaching a verdict later this week. The document, which both sides have yet to agree on, is still in its draft stage. In Samsung's case, it's 33 questions long, and stretched across 17 pages. For Apple, it's 23 questions spread over nine pages. †¢Both forms ask jurors to check off which products infringe on specific patent claims, an exercise that includes going through charts that sometimes span several pages. On Apple's form there are some 225 checkboxes regarding patent infringement. The other parts of the verdict form ask slightly more nebulous questions, like whether claims within the patents from both sides are valid, and the all-important dollar amount that one side or the other is owed as a result of any infringements. †¢On the bright side, certain patent features are greyed out since not all products carry the identical feature set. That could be a welcome sight for the nine-person jury, who must reach a unanimous decision. Result †¢The jury award shows the growing importance of design for electronic makers. California jury awarded Apple $1. 05 billion in a patent dispute with Samsung. †¢The share price of Samsung electronics dropped nearly 7. 5 %in trading THREAT TO INNOVATION †¢Industry has used copyright as a means of preventing innovation. Copyright was a deliberate weapon to stop innovation, and thus maintain the status quo. The patent system is being used similarly †¢Whether the patent system prevents people like them from entering the market with their inventions is unknown. They are more than likely to continue working because they are optimists chasing a dream of seeing their invention realised; of being rich, or just creating something that serves a purpose. †¢The barriers to them achieving their goals for themselves and how they are shared to all must be removed. That means renovating the current system to enhance the opportunities for inn ovation. †¢It will require legislators with the will to change the rules and protocols in the face of opposition from vested interests. It is possible, but the motive may not originate from a wish to assist the corporation – like patents which were conceived to underwrite investments in innovation – but to serve the wider interests of society †¢Ã¢â‚¬ It will lead to fewer choices, less innovation, and potentially higher prices,† Samsung said in a written statement. †¢ â€Å"It is unfortunate that patent law can be manipulated to give one company a monopoly over rectangles with rounded corners, or technology that is being improved every day by Samsung and other companies. †¢Apple, meanwhile, praised the court for â€Å"sending a loud and clear message that stealing isn't right. † This highlights a central issue in today's innovation-based economy. †¢Intellectual property law is based on the notion that copying is bad for creativit y. It is usually cheaper to copy something than create something wholly new. If innovators are not protected against imitation, they will not invest in more innovation. †¢The real world, however, tells a different story. Imitation is at the centre of an enormous amount of innovation.Rules against copying are sometimes necessary. But in many cases, they serve to slow down innovation. Copying, in short, is often central to creativity. †¢How can copying be beneficial? Because it can enable as well as inhibit innovation. When we think of innovation, we usually picture a lonely genius toiling away until he or she finally has an â€Å"aha! † moment. †¢In fact, innovation is often an incremental, collective and competitive process. And the ability to build on existing creative work — to tweak and refine it — is critical to the creation of new and better things. Copying can also drive the process of invention, as competitors strive to stay ahead. AFFECTS ON CONSUMER †¢Consumers are the real loser in this verdict. †¢Consumers do not get Samsung accused products in U. S market. †¢Consumer confusion between products and functions. †¢Now consumer may not get better existing products for lower prices. BUSINESS LESSONS FROM APPLE VS SAMSUNG †¢INSPIRATION NOT IMITATION. †¢DELIGHT LEADS TO DESIGN AND NOT THE OTHER WAY ROUND. †¢DON'T MIMIC BUSINESS DNA. †¢WE ALL DO WRONG STUFF BUT IF YOU GET NOTICED AND WARNED BE SMART.

How to Handle College Deferrals, Waitlists Rejections

How to Handle College Deferrals, Waitlists Rejections You worked hard in high school to earn high grades. You put in the time to research and visit colleges. You studied for and did well on important standardized tests. And you carefully completed and submitted all of your college applications. Unfortunately, all of that effort doesn’t guarantee an acceptance letter, especially if you’re applying to some of the country’s most selective colleges. Realize, however, that you can take steps to improve your admission chances even if your application has been deferred, waitlisted, and in some cases, rejected. Youve Been Deferred. What Now? Applying to college through an Early Action or Early Decision option is definitely a good idea if you know what school you want to attend, for your chances of admission are likely to be significantly higher than if you apply through regular admission. Students who apply early receive one of three possible outcomes: an acceptance, a rejection, or a deferral. A deferral indicates that the admissions folks thought your application was competitive for their school, but not strong enough to receive an early acceptance. As a result, the college is deferring your application so that they can compare you with the regular applicant pool. This limbo can be frustrating, but it isn’t time to despair. Plenty of deferred students do, in fact, get admitted with the regular applicant pool, and there are several steps you can take when deferred  to maximize your chances of being admitted. In most cases, it can be to your advantage to write a letter to the college to reaffirm your interest in the school and present any new information that strengthens your application.   How to Deal With College Waitlists Being placed on a waitlist can be even more frustrating than a deferral. Your first step is to learn what it means to be on a waitlist. Youve essentially become a back-up for the college in case it misses its enrollment targets. Its not an enviable position to be in: typically you wont learn that youve gotten off of a waitlist until after May 1st, the day high school seniors make their  final college decisions.   As with college deferrals, there are steps you can take to help you get off a waitlist. The first, of course, is to accept a place on the waitlist. This is certainly something you should do if you are still interested in attending the school that waitlisted you.   Next, unless the college tells you not to, you should write a letter of continued interest. A good letter of continued interest  should be positive and polite, restate your enthusiasm for the college, and, if applicable, present any new information that could strengthen your application. Keep in mind that you are most likely going to need to make your decision about other colleges before you learn whether or not youve gotten off a waitlist. To be safe, you should move forward as if youve been rejected by schools that waitlisted you. Unfortunately, this means that should you get off a waitlist, you may need to forfeit your admissions deposit at another college. Can You Appeal a College Rejection? Whereas a deferral or waitlist places you in admissions limbo, a college rejection letter is typically an unambiguous conclusion to the application process. That said, at some schools in some situations, you can appeal a rejection decision. Be sure to find out whether or not the college allows appeals- some schools have explicit policies stating that an admissions decision is final and appeals are not welcome. There are, however, some situations that warrant an appeal. This can include a clerical error on part of the college or your high school, or a major piece of new information that strengthens your application. If you conclude that you are in a situation where an appeal makes sense, youll want to employ strategies to make your appeal effective. Part of the process, of course, will involve writing an appeal letter to the college that politely outlines the justification for your appeal. Be Realistic About Your Chances In all of the situations above, its important to keep your admissions chances in perspective. You should always have a plan in place should you not be admitted. If deferred, the good news is that you werent rejected. That said, your admissions chances are similar to the rest of the applicant pool, and highly selective schools send out far more rejection letters than acceptance letters.   If youve been waitlisted, you are more likely to stay on the waitlist than to be admitted. You should move forward as if youve been rejected: visit the schools that have accepted you and choose to attend the one that is the best match for your personality, interests, and professional goals. Finally, if youve been rejected, you have nothing to lose by appealing, but it is certainly a Hail Mary effort. Like a student who has been waitlisted, you should move forward as if the rejection is final. If you get good news, great, but dont plan on your appeal being successful.

Changing world of work and choice and opportunity structures affecting Essay

Changing world of work and choice and opportunity structures affecting careers. WORK, SOCIETY & ORGANIZATIONS - Essay Example 141). Writers point to medieval guild masters or even earlier nomadic tribal leaders as ancient prototypical managers, but from George’s definition one might be tempted to say that mothers comprised the first managers in human history. A â€Å"manager† is difficult to categorically define. George’s definition centers on managers as motivators, working to achieve goals through people. Managers are also organizers: Daniel A. Wren called management â€Å"the activity which performs certain functions in order to obtain the effective acquisition, allocation, and utilization of human efforts and physical resources in order to establish some goal† (Trent, 1973, p. 141). Militarism and Mechanization was formalized by Frederick the Great in the 17th century. He revolutionized warfare, and he is generally acknowledged as an early efficiency expert. He was credited with redirecting the structures and processes of waging war, and creating the elements of the machine o rganization as it applies to the military establishment. Elements of his management style included the institutionalization of authority by creating a system of ranks, establishing identity by uniforms, the standardization of regulations, task specialization among the troops, and the use of command language to reduce miscommunication and specialized training (MacDonogh, 2001). This management style is of course essentially still used to some extent in military and police organizations, although it is much tempered by contemporary HR practices in its treatment of people. Scientific Management Frederick Winslow Taylor, an engineer and self-styled consultant, conceptualized the link between corporate profitability, industrial productivity, and cost-efficiency. Under scientific management, productivity is increased and unit cost is reduced when workers become more task efficient. In turn, workers become more efficient if they are rewarded for higher volume productivity, and punished for low volume productivity. This management theory is also known as Taylorism. The principle of scientific management espouses the elimination of rule-of-thumb methods, and to instead use measurement techniques to determine the optimum methods that optimizes the use of time, effort, and resources. Jobs are broken down into sequential tasks, and each task is engineered for greater efficiency. Then the workers are trained in the new tasks using scientific methods. There is division of labor and responsibility among managers and workers, where management sets the goals and policies, and workers execute the tasks. Finally, discipline is maintained to coordinate task execution (Taylor, 2008). The world’s largest restaurant chain is an avowed follower of Taylorism. McDonald’s employs the scientific method in its corporate operations, where all tasks are worked out and standardized, and all employees worldwide are rigorously trained in this system. Tasks are broken down and num bered, so that the crews related to their customers according to a prepared script, and those who man the kitchen abide by a numbered set of procedures. Even the cooking machinery are specially designed to operate at pre-determined time settings. The result is a rigid quality level that ensures McDonald’s products are prepared and serve in exactly the same way the world over. Formal bureaucracy was conceived by Max Weber in the early 1900s. This was done in reaction to the prevailing management style then, where organisations were run according to the whims and

US Government Development after Revolution Essay

US Government Development after Revolution - Essay Example After all, this was one of the reasons why Americans revolted against their English masters, to have their basic personal freedoms and political rights for them to enjoy. This is why these principles were enshrined in the U.S. Constitution but there were distinct periods in early American independence when the citizens alternated between liberalism and conservatism. Public attitudes regarding this matter were a reflection of the exigencies of the times back then and influenced by political thinkers. The colonial era (1607 to 1783) was a period when individuals had very few rights in relation to the larger community. The frontier mentality necessitated that individuals have to subsume their rights for the greater good because it was necessary for survival. Many colonial writers, political thinkers and philosophers extolled this virtue but things underwent a radical change after the American war for independence. The revolution was a success and American citizens now had to contend with what to do with their lives and their government. This paper is a short discussion on the developments of the American government after the Revolution. Discussion The United States of America gained complete independence from Great Britain via the Treaty of Paris signed on September 03, 1783 and ratified by the two countries on January 14, 1784. The agreement was notable for a few things, primary of which was it enlarged the boundaries of the new country and the American state legislatures were given the freedom to recognize the rights of real loyalists (former real British subjects) whose lands, estates and properties were confiscated during the course of war. Wording of instructions of the Congress of the Confederation (this was the name of the government back then) left it to the discretion of individual states on how to proceed on this point as it merely stated â€Å"earnestly recommend† without any sanctions for possible violations. As can be seen by subsequent events, some state legislatures reneged on this undertaking by failing to return confiscated properties, refused to pay old debts to former British creditors and confiscated anew some properties supposedly to pay off old debts owed to them by some loyalists. In other words, the prevailing situation after Independence was quite chaotic, as the central government was powerless to impose its will on the states. A good number of the states disobeyed lawful orders at their own will and sole convenience without much fear of penalties from the new federal government. The intervening period between the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the convening of the Continental Congress to finally draft and adopt the Constitution was a time of chaotic conditions in terms of relations between the newly-independent states and central government and a good number of the luminaries of the American Revolution saw the need for a strong or at least, a viable federal government to prevent the nation from breaking up and fragmenting. One of those who saw the dangers was Benjamin Franklin, who advocated for limits on rights of states and individuals to preserve the Union and its hard-won independence (Ward 96). He had the foresight to kno w that a weak central government